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Ali - Wikipedia


Vetter und Schwiegersohn von Muhammad, erster der schiitischen Imame, und vierter sunnitischer Kalif




īAlī bin Abī Ṭālib

 Hakob Hovnatanian - Ali ibn Abi Talib.jpg
Sunnism: Rightly-Guided Kalif
Schiismus: Erster Imam
All Islam: Ahl al-Bayt, Ṣaḥābī, Märtyrer; Befehlshaber der Gläubigen Ein versprochenes Paradies Die Tür zur Stadt des Wissens Einer, den Gott favorisierte Der Die Great News Anführer des Gottbewussten Löwe von Gott Tapferes Herz Anführer der Ritter Gottes ] Vater des Staubs König der Heiligen Anführer der Heiligen
Verehrt in All Islam (Salafis zu Ehren statt verehren ihn).
Hauptschrein Imam-Ali-Moschee, Nadschaf, Irak

Ali [a] ([7]; 15. September 601 - 29. Januar 661). [2][3] war der Cousin und Schwiegersohn von Muhammad, dem letzten Propheten des Islam. Er herrschte von 656 bis 661 als vierter Kalif, wird aber von den schiitischen Muslimen als rechtmäßiger Nachfolger von Muhammad als Imam angesehen.

Geboren in Abu Talib [8] und Fatimah bint Asad [1] Ali wurde unter anderem im heiligen Heiligtum der Kaaba in Mekka, dem heiligsten Ort im Islam, geboren. [1][9][10] Ali war der erste Mann der den Islam akzeptierte [11][12] und einigen Autoren zufolge der erste Muslim. [13] Ali beschützte Muhammad von Kindesbeinen an [14] und nahm an fast allen Schlachten der aufstrebenden muslimischen Gemeinschaft teil. Nach seiner Migration nach Medina heiratete er Mohammeds Tochter Fatimah. [1] Im Jahr 656 wurde er von Mohammeds Gefährten zum Kalifen ernannt, nachdem der Kalif Uthman ibn Affan ermordet worden war. [15][16] Alis Regierung sah Bürgerkriege, und im Jahr 661 wurde er von Bürgerkrieg angegriffen und ermordet ein Kharijit beim Beten in der Großen Moschee von Kufa, der zwei Tage später den Märtyrertod erlitt. [17] [19]

Ali ist wichtig Shias und Sunniten sowohl politisch als auch spirituell. [20] Die zahlreichen biographischen Quellen über Ali sind oft nach konfessionellen Grundsätzen voreingenommen, aber sie stimmen darin überein, dass er ein frommer Muslim war, der sich der Sache des Islam widmete und gemäß dessen ein gerechter Herrscher war Der Koran und die Sunnah. [2] Während die Sunniten Ali als den vierten und letzten der Rashidun (zu Recht geführten) Kalifen betrachten, betrachten Shia-Muslime Ali aufgrund ihrer Auslegung des Muhammad als den ersten Imam nach Muhammad Veranstaltungen in Ghadir Khumm. Schiitische Muslime glauben auch, dass Ali und die anderen schiitischen Imame (alle von Ahl al-Bayt Personen des Haushalts (von Muhammad)) die rechtmäßigen Nachfolger Mohammeds sind. Es war diese Meinungsverschiedenheit, die die ummah in die schiitischen und sunnitischen Zweige spaltete. [1][20][21][22]




Leben in Mekka [ edit ]


Frühe Jahre [[19456501] ] edit ]



Alis Vater, Abu Talib, war der Verwalter der Ka'bah und ein Scheich von Banu Hashim, einem wichtigen Zweig des mächtigen Quraysh-Stammes. Er war auch ein Onkel von Muhammad und hatte Muhammad nach dem Tod von Abdul Muttalib (Abu Talibs Vater und Mohammeds Großvater) aufgezogen. [23][24] Alis Mutter Fatima bint Asad gehörte ebenfalls zu Banu Hashim und machte Ali zu einem Nachkomme von Ismā'īl ( Ismael, der Sohn von Ibrāhīm (Abraham). [25] Viele Quellen, vor allem die Schiiten, bezeugen, dass Ali in der Kaaba in der Stadt Mekka [1][26] geboren wurde, wo er drei Tage bei seiner Mutter blieb. 19659033] Berichten zufolge verspürte seine Mutter, als sie die Ka'ba besuchte, den Beginn ihrer Wehen und trat dort ein, wo ihr Sohn geboren wurde. Einige schiitische Quellen enthalten wundersame Beschreibungen des Eintritts von Alis Mutter in Ka'ba. Alis Geburt in Ka'ba gilt als einzigartiges Ereignis, das seine "hohe spirituelle Station" unter den Schiiten beweist, während es unter verschiedenen sunnitischen Gelehrten als eine große, wenn auch nicht einzigartige, Unterscheidung gilt. [27] [19659013LauteinerÜberlieferungwarMuhammaddieerstePersondieAlisahalserdenNeugeborenenindieHändenahmMuhammadnannteihnAliundmeinte"derErhabene"MuhammadhatteeineengeBeziehungzuAlisElternAlsMuhammadverwaistwarundspäterseinenGroßvaterAbdulMuttalibverlornahmAlisVaterihninseinHaus[1] Ali wurde zwei oder drei Jahre nach seiner Heirat mit Khadijah bint Khuwaylid geboren. [28] Als Ali fünf Jahre alt war, nahm Muhammad Ali in sein Haus, um ihn aufzuziehen. Einige Historiker sagen, dies sei darauf zurückzuführen, dass es zu dieser Zeit in Mekka eine Hungersnot gab und dass Alis Vater eine große Familie zur Unterstützung hatte; Andere weisen jedoch darauf hin, dass die Fütterung von Ali keine Belastung für seinen Vater gewesen wäre, da Ali damals fünf Jahre alt war und trotz der Hungersnot Alis Vater, der finanziell wohlhabend war, dafür bekannt war, Fremde mit Nahrung zu versorgen Wenn sie Hunger hatten. [29] Obwohl es unbestritten ist, dass Muhammad Ali aufgezogen hat, lag es nicht an finanzieller Belastung, dass Alis Vater durchgemacht wurde.


Akzeptanz des Islam [ edit ]



Ali lebte seit seinem fünften Lebensjahr mit Muhammad und Mohammeds Frau Khadija zusammen. Als Ali neun Jahre alt war, gab Muhammad sich selbst als Propheten des Islam bekannt, und Ali wurde der erste Mann, der den Islam akzeptierte. Nach Khadija war er die zweite Person, die den Islam akzeptierte. Laut Sayed Ali Asgher Razwy Eine Anpassung der Geschichte des Islam und der Muslime, "Ali und der Qur'an" sind als "Zwillinge" gemeinsam im Haus von Muhammad Mustafa und Khadija-tul-Kubra aufgewachsen [30]

Die zweite Periode von Alis Leben begann 610, als er im Alter von 9 Jahren den Islam erklärte und mit der Hijra von Muhammad bis Medina 622 endete. [1] When Muhammad Er berichtet, dass er eine göttliche Offenbarung erhalten hatte. Ali, damals erst neun Jahre alt, glaubte ihm und erklärte dem Islam gegenüber. [1][2][31][32][33] Ali wurde der erste Mann, der den Islam annahm. [34][35][36][37] Die Shia-Doktrin behauptet, dass dies in Übereinstimmung mit Alis göttlicher Mission sei Er akzeptierte den Islam, bevor er an alten traditionellen religiösen Riten in Mekka teilnahm, die von Muslimen als polytheistisch (siehe Shirk) oder paganistisch angesehen wurden. Daher sagen die Schiiten von Ali, dass sein Gesicht geehrt wird, da es niemals durch Niederwerfungen vor Idolen besudelt wurde. [31] Die Sunniten verwenden auch das Ehrentitel Karam Allahu Wajhahu was "Gottes Gunst auf seinem Gesicht" bedeutet. " Der Grund, warum seine Annahme oft nicht als Bekehrung bezeichnet wird, liegt darin, dass er nie ein Idol-Anbeter war wie die Menschen in Mekka. Es war bekannt, dass er Idole in der Form Abrahams gebrochen hatte, und fragte die Leute, warum sie etwas anbeten, das sie selbst gemacht hatten. [38] Alis Großvater war zusammen mit einigen Mitgliedern des Bani Hashim-Clans Hanifs oder Anhänger eines monotheistischen Glaubenssystems vor der Entstehung des Islam in Mekka.


Das Fest von Dhul Asheera [ edit ]



Mohammed lud drei Jahre lang heimlich zum Islam ein, bevor er sie öffentlich einlud. Im vierten Jahr seiner Predigt, als Mohammed befohlen wurde, seine engeren Verwandten einzuladen, zum Islam zu kommen, [39] versammelte er den Banu Hashim-Clan in einer Zeremonie. Beim Bankett wollte er sie gerade zum Islam einladen, als Abu Lahab ihn unterbrach, woraufhin alle das Bankett verließen. Der Prophet befahl Ali, die 40 Menschen erneut einzuladen. Das zweite Mal verkündete Mohammed den Islam und lud sie ein, sich ihm anzuschließen. [40] Er sagte zu ihnen:


Ich danke Allah für Seine Barmherzigkeit. Ich preise Allah und suche Seine Führung. Ich glaube an Ihn und vertraue auf Ihn. Ich gebe Zeugnis, dass es keinen Gott außer Allah gibt. Er hat keine Partner. und ich bin sein Gesandter. Allah hat mir geboten, Sie in seine Religion einzuladen, indem er sagt: Und warnen Sie Ihre nächsten Verwandten. Ich warne Sie also und rufe Sie auf zu bezeugen, dass es keinen Gott außer Allah gibt und dass ich sein Gesandter bin. Oh ihr Söhne von Abdul Muttalib, niemand kam zuvor mit etwas Besserem zu Ihnen als dem, was ich Ihnen gebracht habe. Wenn Sie es annehmen, wird Ihr Wohlergehen in dieser Welt und im Jenseits gesichert. Wer unter mir wird mich bei der Erfüllung dieser wichtigen Aufgabe unterstützen? Wer wird die Last dieser Arbeit mit mir teilen? Wer wird auf meinen Anruf antworten? Wer wird mein Stellvertreter, mein Stellvertreter und mein Wazir? [41]


Ali war der einzige, der Mohammeds Ruf beantwortete. Muhammad sagte ihm, er solle sich setzen und sagen: "Warte! Vielleicht kann jemand älter als du auf meinen Anruf antworten." Muhammad fragte dann die Mitglieder von Banu Hashim ein zweites Mal. Wieder war Ali der einzige, der antwortete, und wiederum forderte Muhammad ihn auf zu warten. Muhammad fragte dann die Mitglieder von Banu Hashim ein drittes Mal. Ali war immer noch der einzige Freiwillige. Dieses Mal wurde Alis Angebot von Muhammad angenommen. Muhammad "zog [Ali] an sich, drückte ihn an sein Herz und sagte zu der Versammlung:" Dies ist mein Wazir, mein Nachfolger und mein Stellvertreter. Hören Sie ihm zu und gehorchen Sie seinen Befehlen. "[42] In einer anderen Erzählung, als Muhammad nahm Alis eifriges Angebot an, "Muhammad warf seine Arme um die großzügige Jugend und drückte ihn an seine Brust" und sagte: "Siehe, mein Bruder, mein Vizir, mein Stellvertreter ... Alle sollen auf seine Worte hören und ihm gehorchen . "[43] Als sie das hörten, verließen die Söhne von Abd al-Muttalib das Festmahl und verspotteten Mohammeds Worte, als sie über Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib spotteten:" Er hat dir befohlen, deinen Sohn zu hören und zu gehorchen! " [44]: 17 . In Tarikh ut-Tabari und as-Seerat ul Halabiyya wurde berichtet, dass Abu Talib seinen Sohn Ali fragt: "Welchen Glauben verfolgen Sie?" worauf Ali antwortet: "Vater, ich habe an Allah und seinen Gesandten geglaubt und ihm Glauben gegeben, ihn behalten und ihm gefolgt." [44]

Sir Richard Burton schreibt darüber das Bankett in seinem Buch von 1898, in dem es heißt: "Es gewann für 19459950 einen Proselyten in der Person von Ali, dem Sohn von Abu Talib." [45]


Während der Unterdrückung der Muslime [ edit ]


Während der Verfolgung von Muslimen und des Boykotts der Banu Hashim in Mekka unterstützte Ali Muhammad (19659062) Migration to Medina [

. Im Jahr 622, dem Jahr, in dem Mohammed nach Yathrib (jetzt Medina) zog, riskierte Ali sein Leben, indem er in Mohammeds Bett schlief, um ihn zu verkörpern und einen Mordanschlag auf Mohammed zu vereiteln, damit Muhammad in Sicherheit fliehen konnte. [1][31][47] Diese Nacht wird genannt. Laylat al-Mabit . Nach einigen ahadith wurde ein Vers über Ali in Bezug auf sein Opfer in der Nacht von Hijra offenbart, in dem es heißt: "Und unter den Menschen ist er, der seine nafs (Selbst) verkauft Freude an Allah. " [48] [49]

Ali überlebte die Verschwörung, riskierte aber erneut sein Leben, indem er sich in Mekka aufhielt, um Mohammeds Anweisungen auszuführen Eigentümer alle Waren und Eigenschaften, die Mohammed zur Verwahrung anvertraut worden waren. Ali ging dann mit Fatimah bint Asad (seiner Mutter), Fatimah bint Muhammad (Mohammeds Tochter) und zwei anderen Frauen nach Medina. [2][31]


Life in Medina [


Ära [ edit ]



Ali war 22 oder 23 Jahre alt, als er nach Medina zog. Als Muhammad unter seinen Gefährten Bindungen der Bruderschaft schuf, wählte er Ali als seinen Bruder aus und behauptete, "Ali und ich gehören zu demselben Baum, während die Menschen verschiedenen Bäumen angehören." [2][31][50][44]. In den zehn Jahren, die Mohammed anführte Gemeinschaft in Medina war Ali in seinem Dienst als Sekretär und Stellvertreter äußerst aktiv, diente in seinen Armeen, der Träger seines Banner in jeder Schlacht, leitete Parteien von Kriegern bei Razzien und trug Botschaften und Befehle. [51] Mohammeds Leutnants und später sein Schwiegersohn, Ali, war eine Autorität und Stellung in der muslimischen Gemeinschaft. [52]


Familienleben [ edit




Im Jahr 623 erzählte Muhammad "Ali, Gott befahl ihm, seine Tochter Fatimah Zahra in der Ehe Ali zu geben. [1] Muhammad sagte zu Fatimah:" Ich habe dich mit dem Liebsten meiner Familie zu mir geheiratet. "[53] Diese Familie wird häufig von Mohammed verherrlicht und er erklärte sie zu seinem Ahl al-Bayt in Ereignissen als Erfolg Als Mubahala und Hadith wie der Hadith des Ereignisses des Umhangs. Sie wurden auch im Koran in mehreren Fällen verherrlicht, wie "der Vers der Reinigung". 19459121 [54] [55]

. Ali hatte vier Kinder, die Fatimah geboren hatten. das einzige Kind Mohammeds, das überlebende Nachkommen hatte. Ihre beiden Söhne (Hasan und Husain) wurden von Muhammad als seine eigenen Söhne bezeichnet, mehrfach zu Lebzeiten geehrt und als "Führer der Jugend von Jannah" (Himmel, das Jenseits) bezeichnet. [56][57] hatten auch Ali und Fatimah ein dritter Sohn, Muhsin; Er starb jedoch infolge einer Fehlgeburt, als Ali und Fatimah nach Mohammeds Tod angegriffen wurden. Fatimah starb auch kurz nach dem Angriff. [58] [59] [60]

Am Anfang waren sie extrem arm. Ali half Fatimah oft bei den Haushaltsangelegenheiten. Laut einigen Quellen führte Ali die Arbeit außerhalb des Hauses aus, und Fatimah führte die Arbeit innerhalb des Hauses aus, eine Einrichtung, die Mohammed festgelegt hatte. [61] Als die wirtschaftliche Situation der Muslime sich besserte, gewann Fatimah einige Mägde, behandelte sie jedoch wie sie Familie und übernahm die Hausaufgaben bei ihnen. [62]

Ihre Ehe dauerte zehn Jahre später bis zu Fatimahs Tod und soll voller Liebe und Freundlichkeit sein. [63] Berichten zufolge soll Ali gesagt haben über Fatimah: "Bei Allah, ich habe sie nie geärgert oder gezwungen, etwas (unwillkürlich) zu tun, bis Allah sie in die bessere Welt brachte. Sie hat mich auch nie geärgert, und sie hat mich überhaupt nicht gehorcht. Wenn ich sie ansah Sie, meine Trauer und Sorgen waren erleichtert. "[64][65] Obwohl Polygamie erlaubt war, heiratete Ali keine andere Frau, solange Fatimah noch lebte, und seine Ehe mit ihr besitzt eine besondere spirituelle Bedeutung für alle Muslime, da sie als Ehe zwischen ihnen angesehen wirdzwei große Figuren um Muhammad. Nach Fatimahs Tod heiratete Ali andere Frauen und zeugte viele Kinder. [1]


Militärische Laufbahn [ edit ]




Mit Ausnahme der Schlacht von Tabouk nahm Ali an allen Kämpfen und Expeditionen teil kämpfte für den Islam. [31] Ali war nicht nur der Standardträger in diesen Kämpfen, sondern führte auch Gruppen von Kriegern bei Raubzügen in feindliche Länder an.

Ali zeichnete sich erstmals 624 in der Schlacht von Badr als Krieger aus. Der Kampf begann mit dem Sieg über den mekkanischen Meister Walid ibn Utba; Ein Historiker bezeichnete Alis Eröffnungssieg in der Schlacht als "Signal des Sieges des Islam" [66] . Ali besiegte auch viele andere meccanische Soldaten in der Schlacht. Nach muslimischen Traditionen tötete Ali zwischen zwanzig und fünfunddreißig Feinden in der Schlacht, die meisten stimmten mit siebenundzwanzig überein, [67] während alle anderen Muslime weitere siebenundzwanzig töteten. [68]

Ali war in der Schlacht von Uhud sowie in vielen anderen Schlachten, in denen er ein als Zulfiqar bekanntes gegabeltes Schwert führte, prominent. [69] Er hatte die besondere Rolle, Mohammed zu schützen, als der größte Teil der muslimischen Armee vor der Schlacht von Uhud floh [1] ] und es wurde gesagt: "Es gibt keine tapfere Jugend außer Ali und es gibt kein Schwert, das außer Zulfiqar seinen Dienst leistet." [70] Er war Kommandeur der muslimischen Armee in der Schlacht des Grabens, wo er den legendären arabischen Krieger Amr besiegte ibn Abd al-Wud. [71]. Muhammad machte Ali zum Kommandanten in dieser Schlacht und behauptete: „Ich werde den Standard einem Mann übergeben, der Allah und seinen Gesandten liebt und von Allah und seinem Gesandten geliebt wird. Er wird mit der Eroberung zurückkehren. "[44] Nach dieser Schlacht gab Muhammad Ali den Namen Asadullāh (was" Löwe Gottes "bedeutet) und lobte ihn angeblich mit den Worten:" Alis Streik auf Amr ibn Abd al- Wud ist größer als die Anbetung sowohl der Menschheit als auch der Dschinn bis zum Tag des Gerichts. “[44] Ali verteidigte Muhammad auch in der Schlacht von Hunayn im Jahr 630. [1]


Missionen für den Islam [ edit ]



Muhammad bezeichnete Ali als einen der Schriftgelehrten, der den Koran-Text niedergeschrieben hatte, der Mohammed in den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten offenbart worden war. Als der Islam sich in ganz Arabien auszubreiten begann, half Ali bei der Errichtung der neuen islamischen Ordnung Er wurde angewiesen, 628 den Vertrag von Hudaybiyyah, den Friedensvertrag zwischen Muhammad und den Quraysh, niederzuschreiben. Ali war so zuverlässig und vertrauenswürdig, dass Muhammad ihn bat, die Botschaften zu tragen und die Befehle zu verkünden Versammlung von Pilgern in Mekka ein Teil der Der Koran, der Mohammed und die islamische Gemeinschaft erklärte, war nicht länger an zuvor mit arabischen Polytheisten getroffene Vereinbarungen gebunden. Während der Eroberung von Mekka im Jahr 630 bat Muhammad Ali, die Eroberung unblutig zu garantieren. Er befahl Ali, alle Idole, die von den Banu Aus, Banu Khazraj, Tayy und den Ka'bah verehrt wurden, zu brechen, um sie nach ihrer Befleckung durch den Polytheismus früherer Zeiten zu reinigen. Ali wurde ein Jahr später in den Jemen geschickt, um die Lehren des Islam zu verbreiten. Er wurde auch angeklagt, mehrere Streitigkeiten beigelegt und die Aufstände verschiedener Stämme niedergeschlagen zu haben. [1][2]


Zwischenfall Mubahalah []




Nach Angaben der Hadith-Sammlungen 631 kam ein arabischer christlicher Gesandter aus Najran (derzeit im nördlichen Jemen und teilweise in Saudi-Arabien) zu Mohammed, um zu argumentieren, welche der beiden Parteien in ihrer Doktrin bezüglich Isa (Jesus) einen Fehler begangen habe. Nachdem er die wundersame Geburt Jesu mit Adams Schöpfung verglichen hatte, rief Mohammed [72] mubahala (Gespräch), wo jede Partei ihre sachkundigen Männer, Frauen und Kinder mitbringen und Gott fragen sollte die lügende Partei und ihre Anhänger zu verfluchen. [73] Um ihnen zu beweisen, dass er ein Prophet war, brachten seine Tochter Fatimah, Ali und seine Enkel Hasan und Husayn. Er ging zu den Christen und sagte "das ist meine Familie" und deckte sich und seine Familie mit einem Mantel zu. [74] Nach muslimischen Angaben riet einer der christlichen Mönche, als er sein Gesicht sah, seinen Begleitern, sich aus Mubahala wegen ihres Lebens und ihrer Familie zurückzuziehen. So verschwanden die christlichen Mönche aus dem Ort Mubahala. Allameh Tabatabaei erklärt in 19459014 Tafsir al-Mizan dass sich das Wort "Unsere Selbst" in diesem Vers [73] auf Muhammad und Ali bezieht. Dann erzählt er, dass Imam Ali al-Rida, der achte Shia Imam, in Gesprächen mit Al-Ma'mun, Abbasids Kalif, auf diesen Vers verwies, um die Überlegenheit der Nachkommen Mohammeds gegenüber dem Rest der muslimischen Gemeinschaft zu beweisen, und betrachtete dies als Beweis für Ali's Recht auf ein Kalifat, weil Gott Ali zu Mohammeds Selbst gemacht hat [75]


Ghadir Khumm [ edit ]




Als Muhammad von seinem letzten zurückkehrte 632 machte er eine Pilgerreise und machte Aussagen über Ali, die von Sunniten und Schiiten sehr unterschiedlich interpretiert werden. [1] Er hielt die Karawane in Ghadir Khumm an, sammelte die zurückkehrenden Pilger zum gemeinsamen Gebet und begann sie anzusprechen. [21] [21]

Laut Encyclopedia of Islam:


Er nahm Ali bei der Hand und fragte bei seinen treuen Nachfolgern, ob er, Muhammad, den Gläubigen nicht näher sei als sie selbst; die Menge rief: "So ist es, o Apostel Gottes!" Er erklärte dann: "Von wem ich der Mawla bin, von ihm ist Ali auch der Mawla (Mann kuntu mawlāhu fa--Alī mawlāhu)." [22] [76]


Shias betrachten diese Aussagen als die Bezeichnung von Ali als Nachfolger Mohammeds und als erster Imam; Im Gegensatz dazu nehmen sie die Sunniten nur als Ausdruck einer engen spirituellen Beziehung zwischen Muhammad und Ali und des Wunsches an, dass Ali als sein Cousin und Schwiegersohn seine familiären Pflichten nach seinem Tod erbt, jedoch nicht notwendigerweise eine Bezeichnung von politische Autorität.
[20] [77] Viele Sufis interpretieren die Episode auch als Übertragung von Mohammeds geistiger Macht und Autorität an Ali, den sie als das Wali par excellence betrachten. [1] [78]

Beide Shia und sunnitische Quellen geben an, dass nach der Predigt Abu Bakr, Umar und Uthman, die sich Ali verpflichtet hatten [79] [80] [19650011] [81]


After Muhammad edit ]


Succession to Muhammad [ edit ]



Ein weiterer Teil von Alis Leben begann 632 nach dem Tod von Muhammad und dauerte bis zur Ermordung von ' Uthman ibn 'Affan, der dritte Kalif im Jahre 656. Während dieser 24 Jahre nahm Ali weder an einer Schlacht oder Eroberung teil, [2] noch übernahm er eine leitende Position. Er zog sich aus politischen Angelegenheiten zurück, besonders nach dem Tod seiner Frau Fatimah Zahra. Er nutzte seine Zeit, um seiner Familie zu dienen und arbeitete als Bauer. Ali hat viele Brunnen gegraben und Gärten in der Nähe von Medina angelegt und für den öffentlichen Gebrauch gestiftet. Diese Brunnen sind heute als Abar Ali ("Alis Brunnen") bekannt. [82]

Ali erstellte eine vollständige Version des Quran, mus'haf ] [83] sechs Monate nach dem Tod von Muhammad. Der Band wurde fertiggestellt und von Kamelen getragen, um sie anderen Menschen in Medina zu zeigen. Die Reihenfolge dieses Mus'haf unterschied sich von der später während der Uthmanischen Ära gesammelten. Dieses Buch wurde von mehreren Leuten abgelehnt, als er es ihnen zeigte. Trotzdem leistete Ali keinen Widerstand gegen standardisierte Mus'haf . [84]


Ali und die Rashidun-Kalifen [



Muhammad (rechts) und Ali (links) in einem einzigen Wort geschrieben. Die 180-Grad-Umkehrung zeigt beide Wörter.

Nachdem er die arabischen Stämme in den letzten Jahren seines Lebens zu einer einzigen muslimischen Religionsgemeinschaft vereinigt hatte, signalisierte Mohammeds Tod 632 Uneinigkeit darüber, wer ihn als Führer der muslimischen Gemeinschaft ablösen würde. [85] Während Ali und der Rest von Mohammeds engster Familie seinen Körper für ein Begräbnis wuschen, wurde bei einer Versammlung, an der eine kleine Gruppe von Muslimen in Saqifah teilnahm, ein enger Begleiter Mohammeds namens Abu Bakr für die Führung der Gemeinschaft nominiert. Andere fügten ihre Unterstützung hinzu und Abu Bakr wurde der erste Kalif. Die Wahl von Abu Bakr wurde von einigen Gefährten Mohammeds bestritten, die feststellten, dass Ali von Muhammad selbst zu seinem Nachfolger ernannt worden war. [33] [86]

Später, als Fatimah und Ali bei den Companions Hilfe suchten Was sein Recht auf das Kalifat betrifft, antworteten sie: 'O Tochter des Gesandten Gottes! Wir haben Abu Bakr unsere Treue gegeben. Wenn Ali vorher schon zu uns gekommen wäre, hätten wir ihn bestimmt nicht verlassen '. Ali sagte: "War es angebracht, dass wir über das Kalifat streiten sollten, noch bevor der Prophet beerdigt wurde?" [87] [88]

Nach seiner Wahl zum Kalifat wurden Abu Bakr und Umar ging mit einigen anderen Gefährten zu Fatimahs Haus, um Ali und seine Unterstützer zu zwingen, die sich dort versammelt hatten, um Abu Bakr ihre Treue zu geben. Dann wird behauptet, dass Umar gedroht hatte, das Haus in Brand zu setzen, es sei denn, sie kamen heraus und schworen Abu Bakr. [89] . Fatimah stützte sich auf ihren Ehemann und stieß mit "Enthüllung" an ihr Haar ", bei dem Abu Bakr nachgab und sich zurückzog. [62] Ali soll Berichten zufolge wiederholt gesagt haben, hätte er vierzig Männer bei sich gehabt, hätte er Widerstand geleistet. [89] Ali hat sein eigenes Recht nicht aktiv geltend gemacht, weil er die sich entwickelnde muslimische Gemeinschaft nicht in Konflikt bringen wollte. [2] Andere Quellen sagen, dass Ali die Wahl von Umar als Kalif akzeptierte und sogar eine seiner Töchter, Umm Kulthūm, ihm gab in der Ehe. [1]



Diese strittige Angelegenheit führte dazu, dass sich Muslime später in zwei Gruppen aufteilten, Sunniten und Schiiten. Sunniten behaupten, dass Abu Bakr, obwohl Mohammed nie einen Nachfolger ernannte, von der muslimischen Gemeinschaft zum ersten Kalifen gewählt wurde. Die Sunniten erkennen die ersten vier Kalifen als rechtmäßige Nachfolger Mohammeds an. Schiiten glauben, dass Muhammad Ali ausdrücklich als seinen Nachfolger bei Ghadir Khumm nannte und die muslimische Führung zu ihm gehörte, die von der göttlichen Ordnung bestimmt worden war. [19459193[33]

. Nach Ansicht von Wilferd Madelung war Ali selbst fest davon überzeugt Seine Legitimität für ein Kalifat beruhte auf seiner engen Verwandtschaft mit Muhammad, seiner engen Verbindung und seiner Kenntnis des Islam und seiner Verdienste im Dienste seiner Sache. Er sagte Abu Bakr, dass seine Verzögerung bei der Verpfändung der Treue ( bay'ah ) als Kalif auf seinem Glauben an seinen früheren Titel beruhte. Ali änderte seine Meinung nicht, als er schließlich Abu Bakr und dann Umar und Uthman die Treue versprach, dies aber wegen der Einheit des Islam getan hatte, als klar war, dass sich die Muslime von ihm abgewandt hatten. [33] [90] Ali glaubte auch, dass er seine Rolle als Imam'at ohne diese Kämpfe erfüllen könnte. [91]

Zu Beginn von Abu Bakrs Kalifat gab es eine Kontroverse über Mohammeds Begabung an seine Tochter, insbesondere Fadak zwischen Fatimah und Ali auf der einen Seite und Abu Bakr auf der anderen Seite. Fatimah bat Abu Bakr, ihr Eigentum, die Länder Fadak und Khaybar, zu übergeben. Abu Bakr lehnte dies jedoch ab und teilte ihr mit, dass die Propheten kein Erbe hätten und dass Fadak zur muslimischen Gemeinschaft gehörte. Abu Bakr sagte zu ihr: "Allahs Apostel hat gesagt, wir haben keine Erben, was wir verlassen, ist Sadaqa." Zusammen mit Umm Ayman bezeugte Ali die Tatsache, dass Muhammad es Fatimah Zahra gewährte, als Abu Bakr sie aufforderte, Zeugen für ihren Anspruch zu beschwören. Fatimah wurde wütend und hörte auf, mit Abu Bakr zu sprechen, und nahm diese Haltung bis zu ihrem Tod an.
[92]

'Aishah sagte auch: "Als Allahs Apostel starb, beabsichtigten seine Frauen, Uthman nach Abu Bakr zu schicken und ihn um ihren Anteil am Erbe zu bitten." Dann sagte Aisha zu ihnen: Hat Allahs Apostel nicht gesagt: Unser Eigentum (Apostel) soll nicht vererbt werden, und was wir verlassen, ist in Wohltätigkeit zu verbringen? “. [93]

Nach einigen Quellen, 'Ali hat Abu Bakr erst einige Zeit nach dem Tod seiner Frau Fatimah im Jahr 633 seinen Treueeid geleistet. [2] ' Ali beteiligte sich an der Beisetzung von Abu Bakr. [94]

Er verpflichtete sich zum zweiten Kalifen 'Umar ibn Khattab' und half ihm als vertrauenswürdiger Berater. Umar verließ sich insbesondere auf Ali als obersten Richter von Medina. Er empfahl Umar außerdem, Hijra als den Beginn des islamischen Kalenders festzulegen. 'Umar verwendete' Vorschläge von Ali sowohl in politischen als auch in religiösen Fragen. 19459201 [95]

'Ali gehörte zu den Wählern, um den dritten Kalifen zu wählen, der von' Umar ernannt wurde. Obwohl Ali einer der beiden großen Kandidaten war, war die Anordnung des Rates gegen ihn. Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas und Abdur Rahman bin Awf, die Cousins ​​waren, neigten natürlich dazu, Uthman, den Schwager von Abdur Rahman, zu unterstützen. Darüber hinaus gab Umar Abdur Rahman die Casting-Stimme. Abdur Rahman bot Ali das Kalifat an unter der Bedingung, dass er gemäß dem Qur'an, dem von Muhammad gesetzten Beispiel und den Präzedenzfällen, die von den ersten beiden Kalifen aufgestellt wurden, herrschen sollte. Ali lehnte die dritte Bedingung ab, während Uthman sie akzeptierte. Laut Ibn Abi al-Hadids Kommentar über den Gipfel der Eloquenz bestand Ali auf seiner Prominenz, aber die meisten Wähler unterstützten Uthman, und Ali wurde widerstrebend aufgefordert, ihn anzunehmen. [96]

'Uthman ibn 'Affan drückte Großzügigkeit gegenüber seinen Verwandten, Banu Abd-Shams, aus, der ihn zu dominieren schien, und seiner angeblich arroganten Misshandlung gegenüber einigen der frühesten Gefährten wie Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud und Ammar ibn Yasir provozierte Empörung unter einigen Personengruppen. Unzufriedenheit und Widerstand traten offen seit 650–651 im größten Teil des Reiches auf. [97] Die Unzufriedenheit mit seiner Regierung und den von ihm ernannten Regierungen beschränkte sich nicht auf die Provinzen außerhalb Arabiens. [98] Als Uthmans Angehörige, insbesondere Marwan, die Kontrolle über ihn erlangten, wandten sich die edlen Gefährten, darunter auch die meisten Mitglieder des Kurfürstentums, gegen ihn oder zogen zumindest ihre Unterstützung zurück, indem sie den Kalifen unter Druck setzten, um seine Wege zu verbessern und seinen Einfluss zu verringern assertive kin. [99]

Zu dieser Zeit hatte Ali als ein einschränkender Einfluss auf Uthman gehandelt, ohne sich ihm direkt zu widersetzen. Bei verschiedenen Gelegenheiten widersprach Ali Uthman in der Anwendung des Hudud. er hatte öffentlich Mitgefühl für Abu Dharr al-Ghifari gezeigt und sich bei der Verteidigung von Ammar ibn Yasir stark ausgesprochen. Er übermittelte Uthman die Kritik an anderen Gefährten und handelte für Uthman als Unterhändler mit der Opposition der Provinzen, die nach Medina gekommen war; Aus diesem Grund scheint ein gewisses Misstrauen zwischen Ali und Uthmans Familie entstanden zu sein. Schließlich versuchte er, die Strenge der Belagerung zu mildern, indem er darauf bestand, dass Uthman Wasser erlaubt werden sollte. [2]

. Zwischen den Historikern besteht Kontroverse über die Beziehung zwischen Ali und Uthman. Obwohl Ali Uthman die Treue versprach, widersprach Ali einigen seiner Politik. Insbesondere kollidierte er mit Uthman in der Frage des Religionsrechts. Er bestand darauf, dass religiöse Bestrafungen in mehreren Fällen, wie Ubayd Allah ibn Umar und Walid ibn Uqba, durchgeführt werden müssten. Im Jahr 650 konfrontierte er während der Pilgerfahrt Uthman mit Vorwürfen für die Änderung des Gebetsrituals. Als Uthman erklärte, er würde alles, was er brauchte, von den Feinden nehmen, rief Ali aus, der Kalif würde in diesem Fall gewaltsam verhindert werden. Ali bemühte sich, Gefährten vor Misshandlungen durch den Kalifen wie Ibn Mas'ud zu schützen. [100] Daher betrachten einige Historiker Ali als eines der führenden Mitglieder von Uthmans Opposition, wenn nicht das wichtigste. But Wilferd Madelung rejects their judgment due to the fact that Ali did not have the Quraysh's support to be elected as a caliph. According to him, there is even no evidence that Ali had close relations with rebels who supported his caliphate or directed their actions.
[101] Some other sources say Ali had acted as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him.[2] However, Madelung narrates Marwan told Zayn al-Abidin, the grandson of Ali, that


No one [among the Islamic nobility] was more temperate toward our master than your master.[102]


Caliphate[edit]



Domains of Rashidun caliphate under four caliphs. The divided phase relates to the Rashidun caliphate of 'Ali during the First Fitna.

  Strongholds of the Rashidun caliphate of Ali during the First Fitna

  Region under the control of Muawiyah I during the First Fitna
  Region under the control of Amr ibn al-As during the First Fitna

'Ali was caliph between 656 and 661, during one of the most turbulent periods in Muslim history, which also coincided with the First Fitnah. Since the conflicts in which Ali was involved were perpetuated in polemical sectarian historiography, biographical material is often biased. But the sources agree that he was a profoundly religious man, devoted to the cause of Islam and the rule of justice in accordance with the Qur'an and the Sunnah; he engaged in war against erring Muslims as a matter of religious duty. The sources abound in notices on his austerity, rigorous observance of religious duties, and detachment from worldly goods. Thus some authors have pointed out that he lacked political skill and flexibility.[2]


Election[edit]


Uthman's assassination meant that rebels had to select a new caliph. This met with difficulties since the rebels were divided into several groups comprising the MuhajirunAnsarEgyptians, Kufans and Basrites. There were three candidates: Ali, Talhah and Al-Zubayr. First the rebels approached Ali, requesting him to accept being the fourth caliph. Some of Muhammad's companions tried to persuade Ali to accept the office,[103][104][105] but he turned down the offer, suggesting to be a counsellor instead of a chief.[106]
Talhah, Zubayr and other companions also refused the rebels' offer of the caliphate. Therefore, the rebels warned the inhabitants of Medina to select a caliph within one day, or they would apply drastic action. In order to resolve the deadlock, the Muslims gathered in the Prophet's Mosque on 18 June 656, to appoint the caliph. Initially, 'Ali refused to accept it, simply because his most vigorous supporters were rebels. However, when some notable companions of Muhammad, in addition to the residents of Medina, urged him to accept the offer, he finally agreed. According to Abu Mekhnaf's narration, Talhah was the first prominent companion who gave his pledge to 'Ali, but other narrations claimed otherwise, stating they were forced to give their pledge. Also, Talhah and Az-Zubayr later claimed they supported him reluctantly. Regardless, Ali refuted these claims, insisting they recognised him as caliph voluntarily. Wilferd Madelung believes that force did not urge people to give their pledge and they pledged publicly in the mosque.[15][16] While the overwhelming majority of Medina's population as well as many of the rebels gave their pledge, some important figures or tribes did not do so. The Umayyads, kinsmen of Uthman, fled to the Levant, or remained in their houses, later refusing 'Ali's legitimacy. Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas was absent and 'Abdullah ibn 'Umar abstained from offering his allegiance, but both of them assured 'Ali that they would not act against him.[15][16]

Ali thus inherited the Rashidun caliphate — which extended from Egypt in the west to the Iranian highlands in the east—while the situation in the Hejaz and the other provinces on the eve of his election was unsettled. Soon after Ali became caliph, he dismissed provincial governors who had been appointed by Uthman, replacing them with trusted aides. He acted against the counsel of Mughira ibn Shu'ba and Ibn 'Abbas, who had advised him to proceed with his governing cautiously. Madelung says Ali was deeply convinced of his right and his religious mission, unwilling to compromise his principles for the sake of political expediency, and ready to fight against overwhelming odds.[107] Muawiyah I, the kinsman of Uthman and governor of the Levant, refused to submit to Ali's orders; he was the only governor to do so.[2]


Inaugural address in Medina[edit]


When he was appointed caliph, Ali stated to the citizens of Medina that Muslim polity had come to be plagued by dissension and discord; he desired to purge Islam of any evil. He advised the populace to behave as true Muslims, warning that he would tolerate no sedition and those who were found guilty of subversive activities would be dealt with harshly.[108]


The First Fitnah[edit]




A'ishah, Talhah, Al-Zubayr and the Umayyads, especially Muawiyah I and Marwan I, wanted 'Ali to punish the rioters who had killed Uthman.[109][110] They encamped close to Basra. The talks lasted for many days and the subsequent heated exchange and protests during the parley turned from words to blows, leading to loss of life on both sides. In the confusion the Battle of the Camel started in 656, where Ali emerged victorious.[111]
Some historians[who?] believe that they used this issue to seek their political ambitions because they found Ali's caliphate against their own benefit. The rebels maintained that Uthman had been justly killed, for not governing according to Quran and Sunnah, hence no vengeance was to be invoked.[2][31][112]


Some say the caliphate was a gift of the rebels and Ali did not have enough force to control or punish them,[108] while others say Ali accepted the rebels' argument or at least did not consider Uthman a just ruler[113]. Ali himself writes in his famous work, Nahj al-Balagha, that he was blamed by the Umayyads for the assassination of Uthman.[114]

The Umayyads knowledge of me did not restrain them from accusing me, nor did my precedence in accepting Islam keep these ignorant people from blaming me. Allah's admonitions are more eloquent than my tongue. I am the contester against those who break away from Faith and the opposer of those who entertain doubts. Uncertainties should be placed before Qur'an, the Book of Allah (for clarification). Certainly, people will be recompensed according to what they have in their hearts. - Nahj al-Balagha: Sermon 75[114]

Under such circumstances, a schism took place which led to the first civil war in Muslim history. Some Muslims, known as Uthmanis, considered Uthman a rightful and just caliph till the end, who had been unlawfully killed. Some others, who are known as party of Ali, believed Uthman had fallen into error, he had forfeited the caliphate and been lawfully executed for his refusal to mend his ways or step down; thus Ali was the just and true Imam and his opponents are infidels. This was not the position of Ali himself. This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community regarding who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate.[115]

The First Fitna, 656–661, followed the assassination of Uthman, continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war (often called the Fitna) is regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic ummah (nation).[116]

Ali appointed 'Abd Allah ibn al'-Abbas[117] governor of Basra and moved his capital to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in Iraq. Following the Roman-Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sasanian wars that lasted for hundreds of years, there were deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire. The Iraqis wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in Kufa so as to bring revenues into their area and oppose Syria.[118] They convinced Ali to come to Kufa and establish the capital in Kufa, in Iraq.[118]

Later Muawiyah I, the governor of Levant and the cousin of Uthman, refused Ali's demands for allegiance. Ali opened negotiations hoping to regain his allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah replied by mobilising his Levantine supporters and refusing to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. Ali then moved his armies north and the two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657.[2][119]

After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as laylat al-harir (the night of clamour), Muawiyah's army was on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-Aas advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist mus'haf (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Quran, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army.[2][119] Ali saw through the stratagem, but only a minority wanted to pursue the fight.[33]
The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the Kufans caused a further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Qays and some others rejected Ali's nominees, 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abbas and Malik al-Ashtar, and insisted on Abu Musa Ash'ari, for his neutrality. Finally, Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Amr ibn al-As was appointed by Muawiyah as an arbitrator. Seven months later the two arbitrators met at Adhruh about 10 miles north west of Maan in Jordan in February 658. Amr ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa Ash'ari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and a new caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision which had lowered the caliph to the status of the rebellious Muawiyah. Ali was therefore outwitted by Muawiyah and Amr ibn al-As.[120][121]
When the arbitrators assembled at Daumet-ul-Jandal, a series of daily meetings were arranged for them to discuss the matters in hand. When the time arrived for taking a decision about the caliphate, Amr bin al-A'as convinced Abu Musa al-Ashari into entertaining the opinion that they should deprive both Ali and Muawiya of the caliphate, and give to the Muslims the right to elect the caliph. Abu Musa al-Ashari also decided to act accordingly.[122] According to Poonawala, it seems that the arbiters and other eminent persons, with the exclusion of Ali's representatives, met in January 659 to discuss the selection of the new caliph. Amr supported Muawiyah, while Abu Musa preferred his son-in-law, Abdullah ibn Umar, but the latter refused to stand for election in default of unanimity. Abu Musa then proposed, and Amr agreed, to depose both Ali and Muawiyah and submit the selection of the new caliph to a Shura. In the public declaration that followed Abu Musa observed his part of the agreement, but Amr declared Ali deposed and confirmed Muawiya as caliph.[2]

Ali refused to accept the verdict of him stepping down and for an election to be held and found himself technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration.[123][124][125] 'Ali protested, stating that it was contrary to the Qur'an and the Sunnah and hence not binding. Then he tried to organise a new army, but only the Ansar, the remnants of the Qurra led by Malik Ashtar, and a few of their clansmen remained loyal.[2] This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters.[123] The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of 'Ali's coalition, and some have opined that this was Muawiyah's intention.[2][126]

The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan "arbitration belongs to God alone." This group came to be known as the Kharijites ("those who leave"). They considered everyone to be their enemy. In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Battle of Nahrawan.[122][122][127][128] The Qurra then became known as the Kharijites. The Kharijites then started killing Ali's supporters and other Muslims. They considered anyone who was not part of their group as an unbeliever.[128] Although 'Ali won the battle by a huge margin, the constant conflict had begun to affect his standing.[122] While dealing with the Iraqis, 'Ali found it hard to build a disciplined army and effective state institutions. He also spent a lot of time fighting the Kharijites. As a result, 'Ali found it hard to expand the state on its eastern front.[129]

At about the same time, unrest was brewing in Egypt. The governor of Egypt, Qais, was recalled, and Ali had him replaced with Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (the brother of Aisha and the son of Islam's first caliph Abu Bakr). Muawiyah allowed 'Amr ibn al-'As to conquer Egypt and 'Amr did so successfully.[130] Amr had first taken Egypt eighteen years earlier from the Romans but had been dismissed by Uthman.[130]Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr had no popular support in Egypt and managed to get together 2000 men but they dispersed without a fight.[130]

In the following years, Muawiyah's army occupied many cities of Iraq, which Ali's governors could not prevent, and people did not support him to fight with them. Muawiyah overpowered Egypt, Hijaz, Yemen and other areas.[131] In the last year of Ali's caliphate, the mood in Kufa and Basra changed in his favour as the people became disillusioned with Muawiyah's reign and policies. However, the people's attitude toward Ali differed deeply. Just a small minority of them believed that Ali was the best Muslim after Muhammad and the only one entitled to rule them, while the majority supported him due to their distrust and opposition to Muawiyah.[132]


Policies[edit]


Anti-corruption campaign and egalitarian policies[edit]


Ali is said to have vowed and forewarned of an uncompromising campaign against financial corruption and unfair privileges in the ranks of the caliphate after he was pressed by the public to succeed the caliphate following the death of Uthman. Shias argue that his determination in pushing these reforms despite their unpopularity with the elite have been the cause of hostilities from the rich and the privileged former companions of the Prophet.[133][134] In a famous letter to one of his governors, Malik Ashtar, he articulates his pro-poor anti-elitist approach:


Remember that displeasure and disapproval of common men, have-nots and depressed persons more than overbalances the approval of important persons and displeasure of a few big will be excused by the Lord if the general public and masses of your subjects are happy with you. The common men, the poor, apparently less important sections of your subjects are the pillars of Islam….be more friendly with them and secure their confidence and sympathy.[134]


'Ali recovered the land granted by 'Uthman and swore to recover anything that elites had acquired before his election. Ali opposed the centralisation of capital control over provincial revenues, favouring an equal distribution of taxes and booty amongst the Muslim citizens; he distributed the entire revenue of the treasury among them. 'Ali refrained from nepotism, including with his brother 'Aqeel ibn Abu Talib. This was an indication to Muslims of his policy of offering equality to Muslims who served Islam in its early years and to the Muslims who played a role in the later conquests.[2][135]


Forming coalitions[edit]


Ali succeeded in forming a broad coalition, especially after the Battle of the Camel. His policy of equal distribution of taxes and booty gained the support of Muhammad's companions, especially the Ansar who were subordinated by the Quraysh leadership after Muhammad, the traditional tribal leaders, and the Qurra or Qur'anic reciters that sought pious Islamic leadership. The successful formation of this diverse coalition seems to be due to Ali's charismatic character.[2][136] This diverse coalition became known as Shi'a Alimeaning "party" or "faction of Ali". However, according to Shia, as well as non-Shia reports, the majority of those who supported 'Ali after his election as caliph, were shia politically, not religiously. Although at this time there were many who were counted as political Shia, few of them believed Ali's religious leadership.[137]


Governance doctrine[edit]


His policies and ideas of governing are manifested in the letter he sent to Malik al-Ashtar after appointing him governor of Egypt. This instruction, which has historically been viewed as the ideal constitution for Islamic governance alongside the Constitution of Medina, involved detailed description of duties and rights of the ruler and various functionaries of the state and the main classes of society at that time.[138][139]
Ali wrote in his instructions to Malik al-Ashtar:


Infuse your heart with mercy, love and kindness for your subjects. Be not in face of them a voracious animal, counting them as easy prey, for they are of two kinds: either they are your brothers in faith or in creation. Error catches them unaware, deficiencies overcome them, (evil deeds) are committed by them intentionally and by mistake. So grant them your pardon and your forgiveness to the same extent that you hope God will grant you His pardon and His forgiveness. For you are above them, and he who appointed you is above you, and God is above him who appointed you. God has sought from you the fulfillment of their requirements and He is trying you with them.[140]


Since the majority of 'Ali's subjects were nomads and peasants, he was concerned with agriculture. He instructed to Malik to give more attention to development of the land than to the collection of the tax, because tax can only be obtained by the development of the land and whoever demands tax without developing the land ruins the country and destroys the people.[141]


Assassination in Kufa[edit]




On 19 Ramadan AH 40, which would correspond to 26 January 661,[142] while praying in the Great Mosque of Kufa, Ali was attacked by the Kharijite Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam. He was wounded by ibn Muljam's poison-coated sword while prostrating in the Fajr prayer.[143] 'Ali ordered his sons not to attack the Kharijites, instead stipulating that if he survived, ibn Muljam would be pardoned whereas if he died, ibn Muljam should be given only one equal hit (regardless of whether or not he died from the hit).[144] 'Ali died two days later on 29 January 661 (21 Ramadan AH 40).[2][143] Al-Hasan fulfilled Qisas and gave equal punishment to ibn Muljam upon Ali's death.[132]


Aftermath[edit]



Inside view of the mosque in Najaf, before the renovations in 2008


After Ali's death, Kufi Muslims pledged allegiance to his eldest son Hasan without dispute, as Ali on many occasions had declared that just People of the House of Muhammad were entitled to rule the Muslim community.[145]
At this time, Muawiyah held both the Levant and Egypt and, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, had declared himself caliph and marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Hasan's caliphate.

War ensued during which Muawiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against him. Finally, Hasan was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Muawiyah. In this way Muawiyah captured the Islamic caliphate and tuned it to a secular kingdom (Sultanate). Umayyad caliphate later became a centralised monarchy by Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.[146]

Umayyads placed the severest pressure upon Ali's family and his Shia, in every way possible. Regular public cursing of Imam Ali in the congregational prayers remained a vital institution which was not abolished until 60 years later by Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz.
[102]

Madelung writes:


Umayyad highhandedness, misrule and repression were gradually to turn the minority of Ali's admirers into a majority. In the memory of later generations Ali became the ideal Commander of the Faithful. In face of the fake Umayyad claim to legitimate sovereignty in Islam as God's Vice-regents on earth, and in view of Umayyad treachery, arbitrary and divisive government, and vindictive retribution, they came to appreciate his [Ali's] honesty, his unbending devotion to the reign of Islam, his deep personal loyalties, his equal treatment of all his supporters, and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies.[147]


Ibn Abi'l-Hadid narrates the following about the Umayyad treatment towards Ali and his followers:


"Everybody knows that when the Umayyads held the reins of the Islamic world, they spared no single effort for extinguishing the light of Ali and inventing flaws against him. Moreover, they issued the decisions of cursing him openly from the mimbars of their mosques and sentenced to death anyone who would mention any of his incalculable merits. They also prevented people from reporting any narration that might refer to any of his accolades. Finally, they even prevented people from calling their newborns by his name."[44]:6


Burial in Najaf[edit]


According to Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, Ali did not want his grave to be desecrated by his enemies and consequently asked his friends and family to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite was revealed later during the Abbasid caliphate by Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, his descendant and the sixth Shia Imam.[148] Most Shias accept that Ali is buried at the Tomb of Imam Ali in the Imam Ali Mosque at what is now the city of Najaf, which grew around the mosque and shrine called Masjid Ali.[149][150]

However another story, usually maintained by some Afghans, notes that his body was taken and buried in the Afghan city of Mazar-E-Sharif at the famous Blue Mosque or Rawze-e-Sharif.[151]


Virtues[edit]



Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. A numerous range of disciplines from theology and exegesis to calligraphy and numerology, from law and mysticism to Arabic grammar and rhetoric are regarded as having been first adumbrated by Ali.[150]


Prophetic knowledge[edit]


According to a hadith which is narrated by Shia and Sufis, Muhammad told about him "I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate ..."[150][152][153] Muslims regard Ali as a major authority on Islam. According to the Shia, Ali himself gave this testimony:


Not a single verse of the Quran descended upon (was revealed to) the Messenger of God which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil (the spiritual exegesis), the nasikh (the verse which abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), the muhkam and the mutashabih (the fixed and the ambiguous), the particular and the general ...[154]

It has been narrated that when Abbas was a baby, Ali placed him on his lap, kissed his hands and began to weep. He foretold the tragedy of Abbas and the inevitable fate of his hands which caused his wife, Umm ul-Banin, to also weep. However, he goes on to describe Abbas's future position and great status with God, and this relieves her.[155]

Theosophy[edit]


According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Ali is credited with having established Islamic theology, and his quotations contain the first rational proofs among Muslims of the Unity of God.[156]Ibn Abi al-Hadid has quoted


As for theosophy and dealing with matters of divinity, it was not an Arab art. Nothing of the sort had been circulated among their distinguished figures or those of lower ranks. This art was the exclusive preserve of Greece, whose sages were its only expounders. The first one among Arabs to deal with it was Ali.[157]


In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mulla Sadra and his followers, like Allameh Tabatabaei, Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of Sadra's school regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam.[1] According to Henry Corbin, the Nahj al-Balagha may be regarded as one of the most important sources of doctrines professed by Shia thinkers, especially after 1500. Its influence can be sensed in the logical co-ordination of terms, the deduction of correct conclusions, and the creation of certain technical terms in Arabic which entered the literary and philosophical language independently of the translation into Arabic of Greek texts.[158]

In addition, some hidden or occult sciences such as jafrIslamic numerology, and the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, are said to have been established by Ali[1] through his having studied the texts of al-Jafr and al-Jamia.


Eloquence[edit]


Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of Arabic grammar and rhetoric. Numerous short sayings of Ali have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They have also become the basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such as 'Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-'Amiri pointed to the unparalleled eloquence of Ali's sermons and sayings, as did al-Jahiz in the following century.[1] Even staffs in the Divan of Umayyad recited Ali's sermons to improve their eloquence.[159] The most famous selection of Ali's utterances and writings has been gathered in a book called Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence) by a 10th-century Shia scholar, Al-Sharif al-Radi, who selected them for their singular rhetorical beauty.[160]


The sermons without dots and alephs[edit]


Of note among sermons quoted in the book, is the undotted sermon as well as the sermon without Aleph.[161] According to narrations, some companions of Muhammad had gathered somewhere discussing the role of letters in speaking. They concluded that Aleph had the greatest contribution in speaking and that dotted letters were also important. Meanwhile, Ali read two long impromptu sermons, one without using Aleph letter and the other without dotted letters, containing deep and eloquent concepts, according to Langroudi, a Shia author.[162]George Jordac, a Christian author, said that sermons without Aleph and dot had to be regarded as literary masterpiece.[163]


Compassion[edit]


Ali is revered for the deep sympathy and support he shown for the poor and orphans, and the egalitarian policies he pursued during his caliphate with aim of achieving social justice. He is quoted as saying:


If God grants wealth and prosperity to any person, he should show kindness to his deserving kith and kin, should provide for the poor, should come the assistance of those are oppressed with calamities, misfortunes and reverses, should help the poor and have-nots and should assist honest people to liquidate their loans...[134]


It is narrated in Kitab al-Kafi that Amir al-Mu'minin Ali ibn Abi Talib was presented with honey and figs from locations near Baghdad. Upon receiving the gifts, he ordered his officers to bring the orphans so that they can lick the honey from the containers while he distributed the rest himself among the people. [164]


Works[edit]


One of the first copies of the Qur'an ever transcribed in the Islamic world by 'Ali ibn Abi Talib.

The compilation of sermons, lectures and quotations attributed to Ali are compiled in the form of several books.


  • Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence) contains eloquent sermons, letters and quotations attributed to Ali which is compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi (d. 1015). Reza Shah Kazemi states: "Despite ongoing questions about the authenticity of the text, recent scholarship suggests that most of the material in it can in fact be attributed to Ali" and in support of this he makes reference to an article by Mokhtar Jebli.[150] This book has a prominent position in Arabic literature. It is also considered an important intellectual, political and religious work in Islam.[1][165][166] The Urdu translator of Nahjul Balagha Allama Syed Zeeshan Haider Jawadi[167] has compiled a list of 61 books and name of their writers from AH 204 to 488, and provided the sources in which compilation work of Sharif Razi can be traced out. Masadir Nahj al-Balagha wa asaniduhwritten by al-Sayyid 'Abd al-Zahra' al-Husayni al-Khatib, introduces some of these sources.[168] Also, Nahj al-sa'adah fi mustadrak Nahj al-balaghah by Muhammad Baqir al-Mahmudi represents all of Ali's extant speeches, sermons, decrees, epistles, prayers, and sayings that have been collected. It includes the Nahj al-balagha and other discourses which were not incorporated by ash-Sharif ar-Radi or were not available to him. Apparently, except for some of the aphorisms, the original sources of all the contents of the Nahj al-balagha have been determined.[165] There are several Comments on the Peak of Eloquence by Sunnis and Shias such as Comments of Ibn Abi al-Hadid and comments of Muhammad Abduh.

  • Supplications (Du'a)translated by William Chittick.[169]

  • Ghurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim (Exalted aphorisms and Pearls of Speech) which is compiled by Abd al-Wahid Amidi (d. 1116) consists of over ten thousand short sayings of Ali.[170]

  • Divan-i Ali ibn Abu Talib (poems which are attributed to Ali ibn Abu Talib).[2]

Descendants[edit]



Ali initially married Fatimah, who was his most beloved wife. After she died, he got married again. He had four children with Fatimah, Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali, Zaynab bint Ali[1] and Umm Kulthum bint Ali. His other well-known sons were al-Abbas ibn Ali, born to Fatima binte Hizam (Um al-Banin), and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah.[171] Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah was Ali's son from another wife from Hanifa clan of central Arabia named Khawlah bint Ja'far. After Fatima's death, Ali married Khawla bint Ja'far of the Bani Hanifa tribe.

Hasan, born in 625, was the second Shia Imam and he also occupied the outward function of caliph for about six months. In the year AH 50 he was poisoned and killed by a member of his own household who, as has been accounted by historians, had been motivated by Mu'awiyah.[172]

Husayn, born in 626, was the third Shia Imam. He lived under severe conditions of suppression and persecution by Mu'awiyah. On the tenth day of Muharram, of the year 680, he lined up before the army of the caliph with his small band of followers and nearly all of them were killed in the Battle of Karbala. The anniversary of his death is called the Day of Ashura and it is a day of mourning and religious observance for Shia Muslims.[173] In this battle some of Ali's other sons were killed. Al-Tabari has mentioned their names in his history: Al-Abbas ibn Ali, the holder of Husayn's standard, Ja'far, Abdallah and Uthman, the four sons born to Fatima binte Hizam; Muhammad and Abu Bakr. The death of the last one is doubtful.[174]

Some historians have added the names of Ali's other sons who were killed at Karbala, including Ibrahim, Umar and Abdallah ibn al-Asqar.[175][176]

His daughter Zaynab—who was in Karbala—was captured by Yazid's army and later played a great role in revealing what happened to Husayn and his followers.[177]

Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as sharifssayeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shia.[1]




Muslim views[edit]



Except for Muhammad, there is no one in Islamic history about whom as much has been written in Islamic languages as Ali.[1] In Muslim culture, Ali is respected for his courage, knowledge, belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad, equal treatment of all Muslims and generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies, and therefore is central to mystical traditions in Islam such as Sufism. Ali retains his stature as an authority on Quranic exegesis, Islamic jurisprudence and religious thought.[147] Ali holds a high position in almost all Sufi orders which trace their lineage through him to Muhammad. Ali's influence has been important throughout Islamic history.[1]Sunni and Shia scholars agree that the verse of Wilayah was narrated in honour of Ali, but there are differing interpretations of wilayah and the Imamate. The Sunni scholars believe that the verse is about Ali but does not recognise him as an Imam while, in the Shia Muslim view, Ali had been chosen by God as successor of Muhammad.


Ali in the Quran[edit]



There are many verses interpreted by Shi'a scholars as referring to Ali or other Shi'a Imams. Responding to this question that why the names of the Imams are not mentioned in Quran expressly Muhammad al-Baqir answers (in a Twelver hadith):[b] "Allah revealed Salat to his Prophet but never said of three or four Rakats, revealed Zakat but did not mention to its details, revealed Hajj but did not count its Tawaf and the Prophet interpreted their details. Allah revealed this verse and Prophet said this verse is about Ali, Hasan, Husayn and the other twelve Imams."[180][181]
According to Ali, one quarter of Qur'anic verses are stating the station of Imams.[clarification needed] Momen has listed many of these verses in his An Introduction to Shi'i Islam.[182][183] However, there are few verses that some Sunni commentators interpret as referring to Ali, among which are The verse of Wilayah (Quran, 5:55) that Sunni and Shiite scholars[c] believe refers to the incident where Ali gave his ring to a beggar who asked for alms while performing ritual prayers in the mosque.[184]The verse of Mawadda (Quran, 42:23) is another verse which Shiite scholars, along with Sunni ones like Al-Baydawi and Al-Zamakhshari and Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi, believe that the phrase Kinship refers to Ali, Fatimah and their sons, Hasan and Husayn.[185][186][187][188]

The verse of purification (Quran, 33:33) is also among the verses both Sunni and Shiite conjoined the name of Ali with it along with some other names.[d][182][186][189][190][191][192]
The aforementioned verse of Mubahala, and also the verse 2:269 in which Ali is honoured with unique wisdom by both Shiite and Sunni commentators are other verses of this kind.[182][186][193]


Shi'ite[edit]




Ali's Sword and shield carved on Bab al-Nasr gate wall, Cairo

The Shia regard Ali as the most important figure after Muhammad[194] and he represents a complex, legendary figure in their memory. He is a paragon of virtues, such as courage, magnanimity, sincerity, straightforwardness, eloquence and profound knowledge. Ali was righteous but suffered injustice, he was authoritative but also compassionate and humble, vigorous but also patient, learned but also man of labor.[195] According to Shia, Muhammad suggested on various occasions during his lifetime that Ali should be the leader of Muslims after his death. This is supported by numerous hadiths which have been narrated by Shias, including Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the Cloak, Hadith of position, Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and Hadith of the Twelve Successors (for Twelver Shi'ites).

Ja'far al-Sadiq narrates in hadith that whatever virtue found in Muhammad was found in Ali, turning away from his guidance would be akin to turning away from Allah and his Prophet. Ali himself narrates that he is the gateway and supervisor to reach Allah. [164].

According to this view, Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only ruled over the community in justice, but also interpreted the Sharia Law and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was regarded as being free from error and sin (infallible), and appointed by God by divine decree (nass) through Muhammad.[196] It is believed in Twelver and Ismaili Shīa Islam that 'aql, divine wisdom, was the source of the souls of the Prophets and Imams and gave them esoteric knowledge called ḥikmah and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees.[1][197][198] Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation, he had a close relationship with God, through which God guides him, and the Imam in turn guides the people. His words and deeds are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result it is a source of sharia law.[196][199][200]

Shi'ite pilgrims usually go to Mashad Ali in Najaf for Ziyarat, pray there and read "Ziyarat Amin Allah"[201] or other Ziyaratnamehs.[202] Under the Safavid Empire, his grave became the focus of much devoted attention, exemplified in the pilgrimage made by Shah Ismail I to Najaf and Karbala.[33]

Many Shia Muslims also celebrate Imam Ali's birth anniversary (13th day of Rajab) as Father's Day.[203] The Gregorian date for this changes every year:





Year
Gregorian date
2018
31 March [204]
2019
20 March

Sunni[edit]



Sunnis view Ali as the fourth caliph. Ali is also known as one of the greatest warrior champions of Islam. Examples include taking on the Quraish champion at the Battle of the Trench when nobody else dared. After multiple failed attempts of breaking the fort in the Battle of Khaybar, Ali was summoned, miraculously healed and conquered the fort.[205]

Muhammad ibn Idris Al-Shafi‘i, founder of the Shafi‘i school of fiqh, narrated the following when asked his opinion on Ali:


"What can we say about a person whose partisans have had to hide his merits because of fear, and enemies have hidden his merits out of envy? Nevertheless between these two, his merits that have become widely known are too numerous to be counted."[44]:6


Sufi[edit]


Almost all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being Naqshbandi, who go through Abu Bakr. Even in this order, there is Ja'far al-Sadiq, the great great grandson of Ali. Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad the saintly power wilayah that makes the spiritual journey to God possible.[1]

Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri claim that the tradition began with Ali and Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as the Sheikh of the principles and practices of Sufism.[206]

Sufis recite Manqabat Ali in the praise of Ali.


Titles[edit]


'Ali is known by various titles, some given due to his personal qualities and others due to events in his life:[1]


  • Al-Murtaza ("The Chosen One")

  • Amir al-Mu'minin (Arabic: أَمِيْر ٱلْمُؤْمِنِيْن‎, "Commander of the Faithful Ones")

  • Bab-e Madinatul-'Ilm (Arabic: بَابِ مَديْنَةُ ٱلْعِلْم‎, "Door of City of the Knowledge")

  • Abu Turab (Arabic: أَبُو تُرَاب‎, "Father of the Soil")

  • Asadullah (Lion of God")

  • Haydar ("Braveheart" or "Lion")

  • Walad al-Kaʿbah (Arabic: وَلَد ٱلکَعْبَة‎, "Baby of the Kaaba")[207]

As a "deity"[edit]



Ali is recorded in some traditions as having forbidden those who sought to worship him in his own lifetime.[208]


Alawites[edit]


Some groups such as the Alawites are claimed to believe that Ali was God incarnate. They are described as ghulat (Arabic: غُلَاة‎, "exaggerators") by the majority of Islamic scholars. These groups have, according to traditionalist Muslims, left Islam due to their exaggeration of a human being's praiseworthy traits.[208]


Ali-Illahism[edit]


In Ali-Illahism, a syncretic religion centres on the belief that there have been successive incarnations of their Deity throughout history, and reserves particular reverence for 'Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad, who is considered one such incarnation.[209]


Druze[edit]


The Druze, a syncretic religion, believe that God was incarnated in human beings, especially Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah a descendant of Ali.


Historiography[edit]



The primary sources for scholarship on the life of Ali are the Qur'an and ahadithas well as other texts of early Islamic history. The extensive secondary sources include, in addition to works by Sunni and Shī'a Muslims, writings by Christian Arabs, Hindus, and other non-Muslims from the Middle East and Asia and a few works by modern western scholars. However, many of the early Islamic sources are coloured to some extent by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.[1]

There had been a common tendency among the earlier western scholars against these narrations and reports gathered in later periods due to their tendency towards later Sunni and Shī'a partisan positions; such scholars regarding them as later fabrications. This leads them to regard certain reported events as inauthentic or irrelevant. Leone Caetani considered the attribution of historical reports to Ibn Abbas and Aisha as mostly fictitious while proffering accounts reported without isnad by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources" and in this approach tendentiousness alone is no evidence for late origin. According to him, Caetani's approach is inconsistent. Madelung and some later historians do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods and try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.[210]

Until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, few books were written and most of the reports had been oral. The most notable work previous to this period is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qayswritten by Sulaym ibn Qays, a companion of Ali who lived before the Abbasid.[211] When paper was introduced to Muslim society, numerous monographs were written between 750 and 950. According to Robinson, at least twenty-one separate monographs have been composed on the Battle of Siffin. Abi Mikhnaf is one of the most renowned writers of this period who tried to gather all of the reports. 9th and 10th century historians collected, selected and arranged the available narrations. However, most of these monographs do not exist any more except for a few which have been used in later works such as History of the Prophets and Kings by Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d.923).[212]

Shia of Iraq actively participated in writing monographs but most of those works have been lost. On the other hand, in the 8th and 9th century Ali's descendants such as Muhammad al Baqir and Jafar as Sadiq narrated his quotations and reports which have been gathered in Shia hadith books. The later Shia works written after the 10th century are about biographies of The Fourteen Infallibles and Twelve Imams. The earliest surviving work and one of the most important works in this field is Kitab al-Irshad by Shaykh Mufid (d. 1022). The author has dedicated the first part of his book to a detailed account of Ali. There are also some books known as Manāqib which describe Ali's character from a religious viewpoint. Such works also constitute a kind of historiography.[213]


See also[edit]





  1. ^ Full name: Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: عَلِي ابْن أَبِي طَالِب‎, translit. ʿAlī bin Abī Ṭālib), Arabic pronunciation: [ʕaliː bɪn ʔabiː t̪ˤaːlɪb].

  2. ^ Note that Al-Baqir is also regarded as an Imam by the Isma'ili Shia, who believe in different Imams to the Twelvers

  3. ^ See at-Tabari: at-Tarikh, vol.6, p.186; as-Suyuti: ad-Durru 'lmanthur, vol.2, pp. 293–4; ar-Razi: at-Tafsiru 'l Kabir, vol.12, p.26: az-Zamakhshari: at-Tafsir al-Kashshaf, vol.1, p.469; al-Jassas:Ahkamu 'l-Quran, vol.2, pp. 542–3; al-khazin: at-Tafsir, vol.2, p.68 Imamate: The vicegerency of the Holy Prophet By Sayyid Saeed Akhtar Rizv p24

  4. ^ see al-Bahrani, Ghayat al-Marum, p. 126: al-Suyuti, al-Durr al-Manthur. V, S. 199; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al Musnad, Vol. I, S.331; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, al-Tafsir al-Kabir, Vol. I, S.783; Ibn Hajar, al-Sawa'iq p.85




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  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v [19659380]w x y "Alī ibn Abu Talib". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved December 16, 2010.

  3. ^ a b c Al-Islam. "The Life of the Commander of the Faithful Ali Ibn Abu Talib (as)". Retrieved 6 December 2015.

  4. ^ Rahim, Husein A.; Sheriff, Ali Mohamedjaffer (1993). Guidance From Qur'an. Khoja Shia Ithna-asheri Supreme Council. Retrieved 11 April 2017.

  5. ^ Shad, Abdur Rahman. Ali Al-Murtaza. Kazi Publications; 1978 1st Edition. Mohiyuddin, Dr. Ata. Ali The Superman. Sh. Muhammad Ashraf Publishers; 1980 1st Edition. Lalljee, Yousuf N. Ali The Magnificent. Ansariyan Publications; January 1981 1st Edition.

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  9. ^ Sallabi, Dr Ali M (2011). Ali ibn Abi Talib (volume 1). pp. 52–53.

  10. ^ a b Sahih Muslim, Book 21, Hadith 57.

  11. ^ Kelen 2001, p. 29.

  12. ^ Watt 1953, p. xii.

  13. ^ The First Muslims www.al-islam.org Retrieved 23 November 2017

  14. ^ Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims. p. 72.

  15. ^ a b c Ashraf 2005, p. 119 and 120

  16. ^ a b c Madelung 1997, pp. 141–145

  17. ^ Lapidus 2002, p. 47.

  18. ^ Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, pp. 70–72.

  19. ^ Tabatabaei 1979, pp. 50–75 and 192.

  20. ^ a b c Gleave, Robert M. "Ali ibn Abi Talib". Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Brill Online. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2013.

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  22. ^ a b Veccia Vaglieri, Laura. "G̲h̲adīr K̲h̲umm". Encyclopædia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill Online. Archived from the original on March 31, 2013. Retrieved March 28, 2013.

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  27. ^ Faramarz Haj, Manouchehri; Matthew, Melvin-Koushki; Shah-Kazemi, Reza; Bahramian, Ali; Pakatchi, Ahmad; Muhammad Isa, Waley; Daryoush, Mohammad; Tareh, Masoud; Brown, Keven; Jozi, Mohammad Reza; Sajjadi, Sadeq; Gholami, Rahim; Bulookbashi, Ali A.; Negahban, Farzin; Alizadeh, Mahbanoo; Gholami, Yadollah. "ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib". Encyclopaedia Islamica. Glattbutt. Archived from the original on 30 June 2016.

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  32. ^ Ashraf 2005, p. 14.

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  34. ^ Gleave 2015.

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  45. ^ Burton, Sir Richard (1898). (The Jew the Gypsy and El Islam. San Francisco.

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  47. ^ Ashraf 2005, p. 28 and 29.

  48. ^ Quran 2:207.

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  50. ^ Ashraf 2005, pp. 30–32.

  51. ^ See:

  52. ^ Mehboob Desia. Islam and non-violence. Gyan Book Pvt Ltd. p. 150. ISBN 81-212-1026-7.

  53. ^ Singh 2003, p. 175.

  54. ^ Quran 33:33.

  55. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 14 and 15.

  56. ^ See:

  57. ^ "Hasan ibn Ali". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on January 1, 2014. Retrieved January 1, 2014.

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  59. ^ Behaar al-Anwaar, Volume 43. p. 171. Fatimah’s (s.a.) death resulted from being pierced by the sword which claimed (the unborn) Mohsin’s life. The perpetrator of this crime was Qunfuz, who was acting on his master – Umar’s explicit command

  60. ^ Masoodi. Isbaat al-Wilaayah. p. 142. They attacked Fatimah’s (s.a.) house. They crushed the Chief of All Women behind the door so violently that it resulted in the miscarriage of Mohsin.

  61. ^ al-Qurashi, Baqir Shareef (2006). The Life of Fatimah Az- Zahra', The Principal of all Women: Study and Analysis (First ed.). Qum. Imam Ali (a.s.) often helped Fatimah (s.a.) in the house affairs.

  62. ^ a b Vaglieri, Veccia. "Fatima". Encyclopedia of Islam. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. Vol. 2 844–850. ISSN 1573-3912.

  63. ^ al-Qurashi, Baqir Shareef (2006). The Life of Fatimah Az- Zahra', The Principal of all Women: Study and Analysis (First ed.). Qum: Ansariyan-Publikationen. The life of Imam Ali (a.s.) and Fatimah (s.a.) was full of love and friendliness.

  64. ^ al-Qurashi, Baqir Shareef (2006). The Life of Fatimah Az- Zahra', The Principal of all Women: Study and Analysis. Qum: Ansariyan Publications.

  65. ^ Bihar al-Anwar, Volume 43. p. 133.

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  67. ^ See:

  68. ^ Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims. p. 139.

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  132. ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 309

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  138. ^ Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 81

  139. ^ United Nations Development Program, Arab human development report, (2002), p. 107

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  142. ^ Veccia Vaglieri, Laura. "ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib.". Encyclopædia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill Online. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0046.

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  145. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 313 and 314

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Bibliography[edit]



Original sources[edit]


Secondary sources[edit]


Books
  • Abdul Rauf, Muhammad; Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1996). Imam 'Ali ibn Abi Talib: The First Intellectual Muslim Thinker. Al Saadawi Publications. ISBN 978-1-881963-49-3.

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  • Lakhani, M. Ali; Reza Shah-Kazemi; Leonard Lewisohn (2007). The Sacred Foundations of Justice in Islam: The Teachings of Ali Ibn Abi Talib, Contributor Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr. World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 978-1-933316-26-0.

  • Wilferd Madelung (15 October 1998), The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early CaliphateCambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-64696-3

  • Motahhari, Morteza (1997). Glimpses of the Nahj Al-Balaghah, translated by Ali Quli Qara'i. Islamic Culture and Relations Organisation. ISBN 978-964-472-071-0.

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Encyclopedia
  • Shah-Kazemi, Reza, Ali ibn Abi Talib, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1-61069-177-6

  • Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Glattbutt. 2004. ISSN 1573-3912. E-.

  • Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

  • Martin, Richard C. Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-865604-5.

  • Encyclopædia Iranica. Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University. ISBN 978-1-56859-050-9.

  • Meri, Josef W.; Jere L. Bacharach (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Taylor und Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7.

  • Jones, Lindsay (2004). Encyclopedia of Religion. Gale Group. ISBN 978-0-02-865733-2.

External links[edit]



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